Kundakunda is one of the most significant figures in the Digambara Jain tradition. His work Samayasāra (Essence of the Self) remains a profound text that has shaped Jain philosophical thought, particularly with its focus on the true nature of the soul (jīva). The text is deeply concerned with the soul’s interaction with karma and liberation and reflects a crucial dialogue with other Indian philosophical traditions, notably Sāṃkhya, while it maintains the distinctiveness of Jain philosophy.

In this blog post, we will explore Kundakunda’s contribution to Jain metaphysics, his views on the nature of the self, and how his work addresses and critiques competing philosophical ideas.

The Context of Kundakunda’s Thought

Kundakunda, believed to have lived around the 2nd century CE (his life dates are subject to debate), is a revered Digambara ācārya (teacher). He authored several important texts, including Pravacanasāra, Pañcāstikāyasāra, and Samayasāra. Among these, the Samayasāra is particularly significant for its metaphysical focus on the soul's nature and its relation to karma.
 

The Samayasāra lays out a vision of the self that is distinct from the conceptualizations found in Vedānta and Sāṃkhya, while also engaging with these systems. As Johannes Bronkhorst points out, the classical concept of the soul in Jainism has been influenced by surrounding intellectual traditions, yet it remains unique in its insistence on the soul's potential for agency and liberation through self-realization and ethical discipline (Bronkhorst, 2015). 
 

The conception of the soul in Jainism has undergone significant evolution from the early texts like the Ācārāṅga Sūtra to later philosophical works such as Kundakunda’s Samayasāra. In the Ācārāṅga Sūtra, the soul is primarily understood as a conscious entity subjected to suffering due to its entanglement with karma and its interactions with the external world. The early focus was on ascetic practices and non-violence as the means to liberate the soul from the cycle of rebirth. However, by the time of Kundakunda, the emphasis shifted more toward an internalized understanding of the soul’s purity. Kundakunda introduced a dual perspective- niścaya (ultimate) and vyavahāra (mundane) - whereby the soul, from the highest perspective, is inherently pure and unaffected by karmic impurities. This philosophical refinement reflects a broader Jain tendency to emphasize the role of knowledge and meditation alongside ascetic practices for achieving liberation and is thus marking a significant departure from earlier views that centered primarily on ethical action and asceticism (Bronkhorst, 2015). 

From the niścaya standpoint, the soul is pure and free from karma. In contrast, the vyavahāra perspective sees the soul as entangled with karma, bound to the cycle of life and rebirth. Jeffrey Long succinctly summarizes this distinction: “The ultimate perspective reveals things as they truly are (…) the soul dependent on the real perspective is a right-believer” (Long, 2009). 

This dichotomy underlines Kundakunda’s teachings on how liberation can only be achieved by shifting from the mundane perspective to the realization of the soul’s pure nature.
 

The Nature of the Soul in Jainism
 

Kundakunda’s Samayasāra presents a radical view of the soul that emphasizes its pure, eternal nature, separate from both body and karma. This idea builds on the foundational Jain doctrine of the soul (jīva) as a conscious entity inherently distinct from ajīva (non-conscious substances like matter and karma). The soul, in its pure state, is omniscient and blissful but is bound by karmic matter due to the soul's interactions with the material world.

What sets Kundakunda’s Samayasāra apart is its focus on differentiating the soul's true nature from its karmically bound state. He emphasizes the distinction between the practical, everyday understanding of the soul, which sees it entangled with karmic matter, and the higher, ultimate viewpoint where the soul is seen as untouched by these material impurities. According to Kundakunda, real liberation (mokṣa) is attained by realizing the soul’s true, immutable nature and disengaging from the false identification with body and mind, which are products of karma.

Critique of Sāṃkhya and the Bhagavad Gītā

Kundakunda’s Samayasāra critiques both the Sāṃkhya philosophy and certain teachings found in the Bhagavad Gītā. In Sāṃkhya, there is a sharp division between the passive self (puruṣa) and the active material world (prakṛti). The self is an observer, detached from the activities of the body and mind, which are governed by prakṛti.

Kundakunda accepts the notion of an inactive self in some respects, but he diverges by insisting that the soul can act, albeit only within its own domain. According to the Samayasāra, the soul engages in bhāvas (internal states), which are its own pure activities, free from karmic consequences. This stands in contrast to Sāṃkhya, where the self is completely inactive, and liberation is achieved through realizing the distinction between self and prakṛti.

Similarly, Kundakunda critiques the Bhagavad Gītā's notion of acting in accordance with one’s nature (svabhāva) while renouncing attachment to the fruits of action. In Samayasāra verses 335-336, Kundakunda acknowledges that liberation involves giving up the fruits of one’s deeds but asserts that the self's involvement in activity must be fully understood in terms of its inherent nature, not in terms of external actions governed by prakṛti (Bronkhorst, 2015).

The Relationship Between Soul and Karma

In Jain philosophy, karma is a material substance that binds the soul, leading to the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (saṃsāra). Kundakunda’s Samayasāra elaborates on the process by which karma attaches itself to the soul and how this cycle can be broken. Karma accumulates through actions of the body, speech, and mind, which obscure the soul’s natural qualities of knowledge and bliss.

However, the key to liberation, according to Kundakunda, lies not in the cessation of all activity but in the right kind of action—actions that do not lead to karmic bondage. The soul, from the ultimate perspective, is not the agent of karma. This nuanced understanding allows for the possibility of spiritual progress while maintaining the Jain emphasis on ethical conduct and asceticism. Kundakunda’s concept of the soul’s bhāva known as upayoga - the application of the soul’s conscious attention - plays a crucial role in this process. 

Liberation and the Essence of the Self

The ultimate goal of Jain practice, as laid out in the Samayasāra, is the complete dissociation of the soul from karma. This state of liberation is not merely an intellectual realization but a profound transformation of one’s understanding of the soul’s relationship with the material world. In this liberated state, knowledge arises that the soul exists in its pure form, free from the cycle of birth and death, experiencing its true nature as infinite knowledge, bliss, and power.

Kundakunda's emphasis on the inner experience of the self, as opposed to external rituals or actions, marks a significant development in Jain thought. His works advocate a shift from mere ritual observance to deep introspection and self-awareness as the path to liberation. By focusing on the soul’s essence, Kundakunda challenges practitioners to look beyond physical actions and cultivate a deeper understanding of the self's eternal nature.

Conclusion

Kundakunda’s Samayasāra stands as a monumental text in Jain philosophy, which is offering a sophisticated analysis of the soul's nature and its path to liberation. By engaging critically with other Indian philosophical traditions like Sāṃkhya and Vedānta, Kundakunda refines and clarifies the Jain perspective on karma, the soul, and the ultimate goal of existence. His teachings continue to resonate within the Jain tradition, emphasizing the importance of inner purity, ethical discipline, and the unwavering pursuit of self-realization.

Arihanta Institute is pleased to welcome Corinna May Lhoir, a PhD student from the University of Hamburg, to Professor Christopher Jain Miller’s MA - Engaged Jain Studies "Jain Yoga" graduate seminar. Lhoir is currently working on an innovative dissertation translating the medieval Jain text, Yogapradīpa. Throughout the semester, she will share her insights from Dr. Miller's seminar in a series of articles. Read Lhoir's first four articles here:

• Jain Yoga – An Introduction
• Exploring Yoga in the Tattvārthasūtra
• Haribhadra's Jain Yoga I: Exploring the Philosophical Divergences with Patañjali, Vedānta, and Buddhism
• The Legacy of Haribhadra Yākinīputra in Jain Yoga Tradition

Bibliography

Bronkhorst, Johannes. "Kundakunda versus Sāṃkhya on the Soul." In Yoga in Jainism, edited by Christopher Key Chapple, 2015. Routledge.

Chapple, Christopher Key (ed.). Yoga in Jainism. Routledge, 2015.

Dundas, Paul. “Kundakunda.” In Brill’s Encyclopedia of Jainism, Leiden: Brill, 2020.

Long, Jeffrey D. "Mundane and Ultimate Perspectives: Kundakunda’s ‘Two Truths’." In Jainism: An Introduction. I.B. Tauris, 2009.

Tatia, Nathmal. That Which Is: Tattvārtha Sūtra of Umāsvāti/Umāsvāmī. San Francisco: Harper Collins, 1994.