In preparation for the Jain Yoga seminar I am teaching in our collaborative MA program at Claremont School of Theology, I had the great pleasure of reading Professor Jeffery D. Long’s article summarizing the profound insights in Yaśovijaya Gaṇi’s Yogasāra and Adhyātmasāra (Long 2016).

As we learn from Professor Long, in the 17th century, the Jain philosopher Yaśovijaya Gaṇi emerged as a pivotal figure, bridging the classical and modern eras of Jain thought. Known for his engagement with yoga philosophy, Yaśovijaya's works—particularly the Jñānasāra (Essence of Knowledge) and Adhyātmasāra (Essence of the Inner Self)—reflect a nuanced understanding of yoga that incorporates elements from both Jain and non-Jain traditions. In his analysis of Yaśovijaya’s philosophy, Jeffrey Long illuminates the ways in which this philosopher’s synthesis of ideas offers a distinctive perspective on the practice and purpose of yoga.

Yaśovijaya’s Intellectual Context

Yaśovijaya Gaṇi, often considered the last great intellectual of pre-modern Jainism, lived from 1624 to 1688, a time marked by the convergence of classical and modern thought. As a Śvetāmbara Jain philosopher, he engaged deeply with multiple traditions, including the metaphysical insights of Jain thinkers like Kundakunda and the interpretive frameworks of Advaita Vedānta. This cross-pollination of ideas is evident in his major works on yoga, which were, as Long points out, significantly influenced by his later-life encounter with the Gujarati mystic Ānandghan.

Long argues that Yaśovijaya's modernity lies in his emphasis on direct yogic experience (anubhāva) as a legitimate source of true knowledge. This perspective, as Long shows, aligns him with Kundakunda’s focus on the direct experience of the soul (jīva) but diverges in Yaśovijaya’s rejection of Kundakunda's notion that the soul is, in a way, already liberated (a view, as Long points out, that Śvetāmbaras see as one-sided, ekānta, since it emphasizes continuity over change). Yaśovijaya’s approach, while modern, remains deeply rooted in classical Jain principles and showcases his role as a transitional figure in Jain intellectual history.

The Essence of Knowledge: Jñānasāra

Yaśovijaya’s Jñānasāra (Essence of Knowledge) is a foundational text that elaborates on, among many other things, the nature and practice of yoga. It builds upon earlier Jain works, particularly those of Haribhadra, with whom Yaśovijaya saw himself as aligned. According to Long, Jñānasāra maintains strong continuity with Haribhadra’s understanding of yoga, which is seen as any practice that contributes to liberation (mokṣa).

Yaśovijaya divides yoga into five types of practices in Jñānasāra: two related to karma-yoga (physical action) and three to jñāna-yoga (knowledge-based practices). The physical practices involve sthāna (posture) and ūrṇa (voiced utterances like mantras) and are classified as karma-yoga. These are seen as preliminary, purifying disciplines. The knowledge-based practices—artha (understanding the meaning of chants), ālambana (concentration on the external form of a deity), and anālambana (focus on the formless qualities of the deity)—are described as more advanced practices of jñāna-yoga and are ideally performed in a temple setting.

For Yaśovijaya, the highest form of yoga is anālambana, where one moves beyond external representations to engage with the formless aspects (arūpi-guṇa) of the deity. This highest stage of yoga, para, leads to a state of identification or communion (sāyujya) with these qualities, representing the culmination of spiritual practice. Long further demonstrates how these five types of yoga practice are each comprised of four distinct phases, as the practitioner moves from aspiration to manifestation to stability and finally to perfection.

The Essence of the Inner Self: Adhyātmasāra

Professor Long also provides an interesting overview of yoga in Yaśovijaya’s Adhyātmasāra (Essence of the Inner Self). Influenced by his early education in Navya Nyāya and his exposure to the Bhagavad Gītā during his studies in Benaras, Yaśovijaya blends Jain metaphysics with concepts drawn from non-Jain texts. His use of the Gītā as a proof text is particularly telling as Long points out, as it reflects his openness to incorporating insights from other traditions while still maintaining a Jain metaphysical framework.

Yaśovijaya’s reading of the Gītā shows the influence of Advaita Vedānta, which was prominent in his intellectual environment. However, unlike other interpreters who emphasize bhakti (devotion) as the primary path, Yaśovijaya highlights the importance of jñāna (knowledge) as the highest form of yoga. This aligns him more closely with Kundakunda, who also prioritized knowledge over action. However, Yaśovijaya diverges from Kundakunda by insisting on the necessity of ethical action (karman), arguing that neglecting praxis would challenge the importance of ethics in the Jain tradition.

Yaśovijaya as the Rationalist Mystic

Long ultimately argues that Yaśovijaya’s approach makes him a "rationalist mystic" (Long 2016: 188), a term that captures his unique blend of logical rigor and mystical insight. His rationalism is evident in his commitment to anekāntavāda, the Jain doctrine of non-one-sidedness, which promotes a rational and impartial stance toward different systems of thought. This is reflected in his use of Brahmanical and Vedāntic terminology to explain his vision of yoga, demonstrating an intellectual openness that was rare among his contemporaries.

Yaśovijaya’s mysticism also shines through in his emphasis on direct yogic experience as the ultimate pathway to liberation. For him, yoga is not merely a set of practices but a transformative journey that encompasses ethical behavior, meditative focus, and the cultivation of wisdom. Long demonstrates that Yaśovijaya’s progressive view of yoga aligns with Haribhadra’s, where the practice culminates in ayoga, a state beyond yoga that signifies ultimate liberation (mokṣa).

Yaśovijaya’s Enduring Influence

Yaśovijaya’s synthesis of diverse philosophical traditions and his emphasis on a balanced approach to yoga have left a lasting impact on Jain thought. Long reminds us that Yaśovijaya is regarded as the last great intellectual of pre-modern Jainism, and his conclusions continue to be respected among Śvetāmbaras today. His critique of contemporary adhyātma movements—spiritual movements inspired by Kundakunda that tended to reduce the emphasis on ethical action—reveals his commitment to a holistic vision of spiritual practice that integrates both knowledge and action.

In the final analysis, Yaśovijaya Gaṇi’s work represents a remarkable effort to bridge the philosophical worlds of Jainism, Vedānta, and other traditions. His thought demonstrates the richness of Jain philosophical engagement with yoga, offering a path that is deeply ethical, profoundly introspective, and open to diverse insights. As such, Yaśovijaya's contributions remain a vital part of the ongoing dialogue about the nature of spiritual practice and liberation in Jain philosophy and beyond.

Those wishing to learn more about Yaśovijaya’s yoga are encouraged to read Professor Jeffery D. Long’s article, “Yaśovijaya’s view of Yoga” (Long 2016). And if you wish to study the Jain yoga tradition comprehensively, we also encourage you to apply to our collaborative graduate program where we offer a concentration in Yoga Studies with particular focus on the Jain yoga tradition.

References

Long, Jeffery D. 2016. “Yaśovijaya’s view of Yoga” in Yoga in Jainism. New York: Routledge.